The Bizarre Happenings On Isla De Aves International Law Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4261 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Introduction I will call this paper The Isla de Aves story due to the bizarre happenings in the last few centuries regarding this tiny island in the Caribbean. Formally it is an island under Venezuelan domain. There have been many disputes and minor conflicts, even international conflicts, around the island. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Bizarre Happenings On Isla De Aves International Law Essay" essay for you Create order All parties involved were sensible enough to keep arms and wars out of it. The problems concerning the island changed throughout the centuries, as new eras brought new headaches to the issue. In this paper the various conflicts with Aves Island shall be explored under the question of which role international arbitration has played in the conflict so far. Indeed, international aspects of Aves Island seem to be the only constant in the history of The Isla de Aves story. The question why its so important can be answered easily. International boarders and boundaries made an ever changing set of actors in the Aves spectacle. UNCLOS proceedings brought together new neighbours, in most cases unwillingly. Exclusive economic zone is one major key phrase of this paper, as the modern quarrels are due to the extension of the EEZ after UNCLOS proceedings in the United Nations. The with some exceptions worldwide ratification caused already settled boarder conflicts to rise again, or let ne w disputes arise. Even armed conflicts were fought in the aftermath of it. Most interestingly for this paper is the fact, that Venezuela, who insist on the 200 mile exclusive economic zone around Aves Island, didnt even sign the UNCLOS treaties! With the refusal in mind a first glimpse of how confusing and furthermore absurd the argumentation in the disputes is. Thus said, it is clear that the extension of sea boarders up to 200 nautical miles brought problems in sea-demarcation, especially in island cases and additionally, when former colonial and imperial powers retreat and leave a power vacuum. In the case of the Caribbean, where Dutch, English, French and Spanish settlements can be found, the question of who would be the legitimate successor is difficult to sort. One part of this paper will examine to what extent colonial powers settled the conflict regarding Aves Island and what role international arbitration plays in the conflict until today. Compared to similar conflict s in other parts of the world, which were taken to the International Court of Justice, in the Isla de Aves story the parties involved try to sort out the conflict without applying to the International Court of Justice. Especially the island state Dominica will be examined, as it is the only remaining party questioning sovereignty rights of Venezuela, because according to the island officials, Dominica would be the legitimate successor to Spanish rule. Innumerable cases like the Aves Island are treated there since its establishment in 1945. Claims for standardized arbitration arise from time to time, but the participation in the International Court of Justice is voluntary. Opponents to such postulations fear cuttings in state sovereignty. A part of this paper will deal with the situation. Various arguments from all parties will be provided throughout the paper, starting with the historical situation and the arbitration by Queen Isabella II in 1865. All the arguments brought for ward by all the parties involved now and then will be treated shortly. The paper, consisting of three parts regarding the historical background to the story, a juridical and a political, will provide an insight into the problem and will explain the role of international arbitration. Why is Aves Island so interesting? Why Aves Island is so interesting to all the parties might sound quite absurd to remote observers. In fact it hardly plays a role in international diplomacy. Bilateral relations are spoiled to a certain extent, especially between Dominica and Venezuela. Maritime boarders have been agreed between the major forces in the area. Former opponents like France, the Netherlands and Great Britain have agreed boarder treaties with Venezuela. Surprisingly, even the United States could negotiate a common border with Venezuela. Why this sounds surprising is the fact, that both countries have quite difficult bilateral relations since Hugo Chavez was elected president in 1999. From the very beginning, the South American leader saw his role and agenda as a liberator of Latin America out of US-imperialist policies  [1]  . Touristic potential Nonetheless, the island and its surrounding area is more than just a diplomatic dispute. Crude oil, natural gas and other natural resources, especially noticeable big fishing grounds are assumed to be in the waters around Bird Island  [2]  . Economics not enough, Dominica recognizes the islands touristic potential, which is yet unfulfilled. Only very few tour operators organise day trips to the island from Venezuelan mainland, naturally. The island has been protected by Venezuelan government by declaring it as a national park. Rare seabirds and green turtles use the island as a resting and breeding place  [3]  . The protection and preservation of the island is not enough, according to officials and politicians from Dominica. With the acceptance by the UNESCO, Venezuela is responsible for the conservation of this natural resort. However, Dominica feels it is the duty of the island state to care for the island, which has been protected by Venezuelan naval boats for several decades now  [4]  . Economic incentives Another neglected aspect of Aves Island is seafaring. Since it is a very tiny, shallow island the highest elevation is below three metres it is easily overseen by big ships. Many ships have been wrecked in history around the island. Here we can find the reason why the island shall be persevered and Venezuela is not just obliged, but also in their interest eager to fill up the vanishing islet. As soon as the island would disappear below sea level, Venezuelas legitimation of the 200 sea mile exclusive economic zone, according to United Nations Law of the Sea Convention, would be obsolete  [5]  . This zone, established by Venezuela in 1978 had aroused boarder issues with several Caribbean and even European  [6]  states. They were solved after 1980, when Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and the United States agreed treaties with Venezuela. However, consent is missing with Dominica. For whatever reason can be chosen from one of the examples above, as the argumentation fo r the island changes from time to time. Interestingly, Dominica agreed preferential relations with Venezuela in the context of PetroCaribe, a project initiated by Hugo Chavez government in 2005. Two Caribbean organisations play a major role throughout the conflict regarding the Isla de Aves, and shall be furthered mentioned in the course of this paper. Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) is a community compared to the European Union and is formerly known as the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA)  [7]  . The second and strongly connected to CARICOM is PetroCaribe  [8]  , a partnership initiated by Venezuela, allowing contractual partners to buy cheap crude oil. A more detailed explanation of the agenda and the terms of contract will leave its mark throughout the paper. Historical background of the Isla de Aves story The island has come into international attention in 1865. Back then, there was a struggle by Dutch settlers from neighbouring islands to clarify the possession of the island. Originally it must have been discovered by Avaro Sanzze in 1584  [9]  , but it was neither settled nor well documented. Actually, the island has never been in Venezuelan interest before 1854. Not even the geographical studies by Agustà ­n Codazzi, financed by the Venezuelan government mapped the island  [10]  . Dutch settlers and miners from the United States Before the 1850s Aves Island was regularly visited by Dutch settlers from Eusebia and St. Kitts to collect bird and turtle eggs, as the island is a breeding area for both, birds and turtles  [11]  . At first, no conflicts arose, as Venezuelas interest for the island was little. The Spaniards Venezuelas predecessors were similarly uninterested. This hasnt changed for the following centuries until the 1850s. The famous arbitration by Queen Isabella II, which followed in 1865, provoked Venezuelas interest for the island. 1865 Queen Isabella II clears possession Then, the unhappy Dutch settlers bemoaned the missing legal status of the island, to whom it belonged etc. American guano exploiting triggered the discussions. As the Spaniards were the first to enter the Caribbean centuries earlier, it was obvious that the Dutch went to the Spanish queen to settle the conflict. There the sought a sentence in their favour. Instead, the island was said to be Venezuelan from now on  [12]  . Isabellas argumentation is easy to follow. As the island was in Spanish administrative spheres, Venezuela was the most natural successor to have sovereignty rights over it. Even in 1865 her arbitration was disputed, despite being accepted by most parties  [13]  . Later bilateral treaties between Venezuela and surrounding European neighbours after the 1960s indicate that the arbitration, combined with minor geopolitical interests, made the island unattractive for Europes former colonial powers. Moreover, the former colonial powers were the first to ha ve bilateral treaties with Venezuela. If the arbitration by Isabella II is considered, the Dutch were the first to acknowledge the sovereignty of the island. In the 20th century France, the Netherlands and the United States negotiated treaties. The island attracted international attention due to the United States seizure of the Island. Another historically important incident in that period were the so called guano acts by the United States  [14]  . Big guano resources on the island effectively made it American. Although the American captain didnt conquer the island immediately there was no military presence neither by Venezuela nor by Dutch settlers the guano resources were exploited by the United States in the 19th century until the early 20th century, without insistent protests by Venezuela  [15]  . After the guano resources were gone, the American miners left the island. During the course of the 20th century, however, Venezuela reiterated its sovereignty over the island on several occasion. The establishment of Simon Bolivar military naval base sent out several warnings to Venezuelas Caribbean neighbours. First it was claimed to be a permanent settlement  [16]  . Extreme weather conditions, however, make a permanent settlement impossible. During the hurricane season the base and therefore the island is empty. Historically the island was never settled. The geographical circumstances and the weather condition make permanent settlements impossible. Its size doesnt provide enough protection against hurricanes. The Caribbean is well known for its hurricanes, but even in the hurricane-free time of the year, there is no settlement documented. Again the major issue and reason not to settle on Aves Island is its size. When it was first discovered, it was not larger than 500 metres calibre  [17]  . UNCLOS and Venezuela Despite the establishment of the 200 sea mile exclusive economic zone, Venezuela hasnt signed the contract. When the proceedings and negotiations took place, Venezuelas government refused to sign the contract. The establishment of the exclusive economic zone in 1978 was, according to Venezuela and many other states which implemented the 200 mile EEZ on their coastlines, common law, and wouldnt need further pieces of International Law  [18]  . Juridical background and consequences of the conflict International mediation and arbitration the solution? The quarrel about Isla de Aves has become a rather bizarre conflict, mainly taken out on media issues. Venezuela has to shrug off claims from almost half of the Western Caribbean island states. Some of them are former European colonies and still benefit from their status as former colonies, as European countries and even the European Union as a whole support the island states claims for the island. Venezuelas refusal to take the case to the International Court of Justice is for some protagonists in the conflict hard to take, but from an International Law perspective, Venezuela only sticks to its sovereignty rights  [19]  . Main opponent to Venezuelas sovereignty over the island is Dominica, who claims it for the state itself. Others only deny Venezuelas stance on the definition of the island itself, which is claimed as a rock by Dominica, but has been granted the legal status of an island by UNCLOS  [20]  . Treaties between Venezuela, the United States, France and the Ne therlands, valid since 1980 should have settled the issue. The prospect of crude oil and natural gas under the sea around a 200 exclusive economic zone would enable Venezuela to exploit it, the surrounding island states dont want to be left aside. Therefore the insistence on taking the case to the International Court of Justice is comprehensible. Venezuelas stance on refusing it is ensured by International Law and no state has to subordinate to the Court  [21]  . EEZ disputes arent reduced to Venezuela and the Caribbean. The definition and relatively late establishment of the UNCLOS caused confusion and disturbances. Countries could claim up to 350 nautical miles of state territory, still without the EEZ up to date mark. Regulations from 250 nautical miles are intact. Aves Island is a mixture of several disputes. On the one hand, the classification as an island is stressed, on the other hand only the EEZ is under dispute and third, the ownership of the island in general is questioned  [22]  . Sovereignty rights and International Court of Justice UNCLOS, however, acknowledges states the right to settle conflicts arising due to the overlap of new boarders as a consequence of UNCLOS establishment. There is no question about the ownership of the Island. Despite rather weak claims by St. Kitts and Dominica, Venezuelas sovereignty over the island isnt substantially challenged. Historically the island was appointed to Venezuela as the legitimate successors of Spanish rulers  [23]  . Up to now, the question, if Queen Isabella was the right one to rule on the issue, is justly there. Nowadays the Spanish Queen would not be taken as a referee in such a dispute, as in 1865, when Venezuela was still a prolonged arm of Spanish colonial rule. Since all the European rivals gave up their interest in Bird Island, the Caribbean Community lost strong allies. As sovereign states they arent obliged to subject to international arbitration  [24]  . It might sound unfair to the eyes of the Caribbean parties that Venezuela refuses to take the case to the International Court of Justice, as they were willing to subordinate exactly to the same methods when Queen Isabella II ruled on the issue, in favour of Venezuela  [25]  . The Caribbean states are supported by the United States at least according to claims by vice president of Venezuela Josà © Vicente Rangel. There is no legal base for it, nonetheless. Only some dubious statements which just undermine the traditional diplomatic conflicts between the two countries indicate support. There hasnt been any legal assistance for the countries neither by the United States, nor the European Union. Even the remote Caribbean has strong connections to the European Union, as the Netherlands and France could help their former possessions in the area. However, there is no sign of assistance from Europe, the official strategy paper for foreign affairs doesnt include any sign of rejection of Venezuelan claims. Additionally, the prospect of better economic relations to So uth America makes the little island states dispensable  [26]  . To return to the role of International arbitration in the Aves story its important to mention that the participation in international institution is by choice. Thus said, its clear that any recommendation by such doesnt necessarily have legitimate power. The dependence of International organisations on National Law and the participation of each state makes International arbitration difficult  [27]  . As indicated in the historical case with Queen Isabella II, Venezuela only subjects to it, as long as theyre assured the sentence is going in their favour. Venezuelas juridical and political resilience is underlined by several bizarre spectacles. One was the construction of the scientific-military base Simon Bolivar on the island. It was set up in 1978 by the Venezuelan Navy in a military action, including several naval boats and soldiers, taking the island. Therefore the island is inhabited and fulfils the qu alifications to be counted as an island. This naval base was the place for several spectacles like a speech by President Hugo Chavez, directly broadcast from the island  [28]  . As if such demonstrative actions wouldnt be enough, some years ago one of the highest army generals married on the island. Again international protests followed, although there is no legal background to it. As the island is Venezuelan territory, all the neighbouring islands could only watch the wedding. Provocative shows seem to be the expertise of Hugo Chavez, also in this case. Despite claims to implement standardized arbitration in similar conflicts, there is not enough power to enforce arbitration. To reject common International Laws would restrict state sovereignty substantially  [29]  . Furthermore, other states in history were always allowed to sort similar conflicts on their own, or with mediation. Most importantly everything was willingly so far. The International Court of Justice ther efore can have massive influence. In other cases, however, it has to observe helplessly. Consequences of the conflict cant be deduced at the moment, due to the progressing negotiations in the area. Unless there are no new aspects relevant for international law, at least the legal situation is unchanged. The use to enforce UNCLOS worldwide and an artwork for demarcation in similar cases are obvious if the abstruse situation in the Isla de Aves story is considered  [30]  . Political background of the Isla de Aves story Hugo Chavez foreign policies A quite bizarre show is behind the scenes regarding political aspects of the Isla de Aves story. Above, the historical and juridical situations indicate the complexity of the issue. Political parties add fuel to the fire, especially from Venezuelas perspective. Hugo Chavez and other political and subsequently military officers are actors in this play. When Hugo Chavez reign as president of Venezuela started, he stated that he would not have any resentment against others. His main priority in foreign policies would be the Caribbean and Latin America. Ironically Chavez kept his promise, but by a large in a negative way. However, Venezuelas stance in this respect explains to some extent the friction between the South American state and the United States. More or less traditional frictions in the relationship between Venezuela and the United States were renewed under president Hugo Chavez. When he reiterated the sovereignty over Aves Island in his Alà ³ Presidente speech, the Un ited States urged the Venezuelan government to stay calm. Nonetheless, naval boats were stationed near the island to prove strength and the South American states determination to control the island. Initial point for this show was the resentment of some Caribbean neighbours to Aves Island. The United States were the first ones the Venezuelans had bilateral boarder treaties with. Considering these treaties, the warning the Americans have issued can be seen as serving for the traditional opposition status the United States want to have.  [31] In quick succession, other major world powers agreed bilateral treaties with Venezuela, but also some of the Eastern Caribbean states, former Dutch colonies  [32]  . Hugo Chavez wants to establish Venezuela as the leading regional power. Bird Island and the exclusive economic zone around it are therefore necessary. The economic influence Venezuela has established in the Caribbean under Hugo Chavez is huge. By bringing to life the P etroCaribe deal which allows member states to buy cheap crude oil in exchange for services or at very low credit rates  [33]  . Opponents and argumentation The main opponents to Venezuelas 200 nautical miles exclusive economic zone are, as mentioned above, its direct Caribbean neighbours. Former or still European neighbours have all closed boarder treaties with Venezuela, already in the 1970s or even earlier. The recent uprisings and resentments are therefore not supported by other states than from the Caribbean. As the European Union is anxious to improve the bilateral relations with Venezuela  [34]  , even former colonies are left alone with their position. But not even the so called Caribbean community finds a single position against Venezuela. The South American state is really clever to undermine the CARICOMs quest for fighting off Venezuelas claims together. Strategic partnerships, like the PetroCaribe or the OECS make the Isla de Aves story even more complex  [35]  . Conlusion The manifold Isla de Aves story is yet to be solved. In the last few years, a possible solution seems to be imminent, without real progress being observed. Despite the membership request for the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean states by Venezuela, possession and sovereignty rights over the island remain unclear. International organisation have played a major role throughout the last few decades. Neutral forces were not involved in the story so far. Neither the OECS, the CARICOM or other regional economic or political entities have contributed to find a solution, which could be accepted by all arguing parties. Especially the unity of the OECS and CARICOM is permanently undermined by Venezuela. St. Kitts, Antigua and Barbuda, other comparatively small island states in the Eastern Caribbean like the fiercest opponents to Venezuela, Dominica, have changing relationships to the South American state. Also Dominica, who tried to solve the issue to their advantage by Venezuela friendl y policies until 2004, when a change in government brought a change in the relationship to Venezuela, generally. This didnt hinder the country to participate in the PetroCaribe program. The PetroCaribe deal is quite astonishing for several reasons. On the one hand, Venezuela could sell their crude oil for much higher prices to the United States or somewhere on the world market, but the country wants to have cheap oil for the nearest, regional neighbours under the agenda of safe energy sources for South America have the priority for Venezuela. On the other hand, Hugo Chavez uses the agreement wrongly for his own interest, notably to force loftier position in the Aves case. Dominicas refusal to relinquish its interest on Bird Island is even more admirable under this circumstances. Nonetheless the government took over much more peaceful stances. Unlike Barbados, who completely denied to sign the agreement. Speculated pressure by the United States was disclaimed, but these specula tions remain. The possibility of signing at a later point in time is still there, though it seems unlikely that Barbados stance will change soon. Venezuelas geopolitical interest for Aves Island is thus easy to understand, but the economic power it shows off under Hugo Chavez would still be prevailing without the exclusive economic zone around Aves Island. However, the Bolivarian state seems to favour the idea of applying pressure with the island. Despite my description of the definitely existing touristic potential the island has, its rather overestimating whats happening than underestimating. Of course day trips from Dominica would be a very nice adventure, but the little sand bank, as it is a bird sanctuary and natural reserve already, couldnt bear too much of it anyway, in order to have a measurable impact on a national economy. Its biodiversity is worth keeping and caring for, indeed, but to make a national case out of a few metres of sand in the enormous Caribbean sea is definitely politics and rhetoric. The historic value of the island is to be doubted, too. Queen Isabellas II arbitration was, however, the only international arbitration or mediation so far! Nowadays, the Spanish queen wouldnt be asked to rule on an issue, in which personal or national Spanish interests are included. Despite Venezuelas independence some decades earlier, Venezuela still had strong connections to their former colonial masters. Regardless of her motivation to assign Isla de Aves to Venezuela, her arbitration is the starting point, though, to show the often bizarre argumentation all the parties included have used. Even the United States, a quite underrepresented power in this paper, played a big part in the story of the island so far. Until 1912, they exploited and mined guano there. US-doctrines often raise question marks on international politics, as did the guano acts from 1856. Based on this legal act, it considered the island United states territory, as big gua no resources were there. The United States interventions were mentioned in the paper, but are not worth calling them interventions. As explained in the text, the United States were the first to accept maritime boundaries with Venezuela in 1978 and virtually legitimating Venezuelas exclusive economic zone. I have tried to show which role the European Union played in the story. Unfortunately, they didnt really have one. Although I have found hints at the conflict in the strategic paper for relations with Venezuela, it respects all sovereignty rights and just as many jurists would argue, says its the case of every country to take certain problems to the International court of Justice, unless they want to. Standardized international arbitration is therefore, just a theoretic construct. Its illusionary to say that one day every country would accept United Nations institutions. It seems as it will go on that everyone just accepts the peanuts of it. Just like Venezuela perfectly s erves as a role modelÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ Literature Charney, Jonathan and Colson, David and Smith, Robert. International maritime boundaries. Danvers: Brill Publishers, 2005 Jonathan Charney, David Colson and Robert Smith. International maritime boundaries, (Danvers: Brill, 2005) Davis, Michael Esq. Bird Island, OECS and the potential Venezuelan Membership thedominican.net, December 15, 2008 https://www.thedominican.net/articlesone/aves.htm (accessed December 10, 2010) European Union, Venezuela. Là ¤nderstrategiepapier 2007-2013 (11/04/2007) Fontaine, Thomas. Aves Island a strategic Island in the Caribbean Sea. Should Dominica Stake a claim to the Island? thedominican.net, October 21, 2002, https://www.thedominican.net/articles/bird-island.htm (accessed January 15, 2011) Garrisson, Scott, Sovereignty of Aves Island: An Argument Against Compulsory, Standardized Arbitration of Maritime Boundary Disputes Subject to Review by the International Court of Justice; The University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 185, nr. 3 8 (2006) Kwiatkowska, Barbara; Dotinga, Harm, International Organizations and the law of the Sea Documentary Yearbook, Vol. 1, Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea, 1985 Welsch Friedrich; Werz, Nikolaus, Der Wahlsieg und der Regierungsbeginn von von Hugo Chà ¡vez Frà ­as in Venezuela, Università ¤t Rostock: Institut fà ¼r Politik- und Verwaltungswissenschaften, 1999 Zuloaga, Guillermo, The Isla de Aves Story, Geographical Review 45/2 (1955): 172 180

Reece Biology Study Material - 3724 Words

Campbells Biology, 9e (Reece et al.) Chapter 35 Plant Structure, Growth, and Development In previous chapters, students have been exposed to basic processes in life such as photosynthesis, respiration, and evolution. Chapter 35 provides key vocabulary on plant structure and development and introduces basic concepts and processes. This information is critical for understanding higher-order concepts introduced in subsequent chapters. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) One major advantage of using Arabidopsis thaliana as a model system for studies of plant form and function is its A) fast generation time. B) exceptionally large genome. C) large seeds. D) high tolerance to stress. E) high mutation rate. Answer: A Topic: Concept†¦show more content†¦D) vascular tissue is found in roots but is absent from leaves. E) leaves have epidermal tissue but roots do not. Answer: C Topic: Concept 35.2 Skill: Application/Analysis 19) A student examining leaf cross sections under a microscope finds many loosely packed cells with relatively thin cell walls. The cells have numerous chloroplasts. What type of cells are they? A) parenchyma B) xylem C) endodermis D) collenchyma E) sclerenchyma Answer: A Topic: Concept 35.2 Skill: Application/Analysis 20) Compared to most animals, the growth of most plants is best described as A) perennial. B) weedy. C) indeterminate. D) derivative. E) primary. Answer: C Topic: Concept 35.2 Skill: Application/Analysis 21) A vessel element would likely lose its protoplast in which section of a root? A) zone of cell division B) zone of elongation C) zone of maturation D) root cap E) apical meristem Answer: C Topic: Concept 35.2 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 22) Gas exchange, which is necessary for photosynthesis, can occur most easily in which leaf tissue? A) epidermis B) palisade mesophyll C) spongy mesophyll D) vascular tissue E) bundle sheath Answer: C Topic: Concept 35.2 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 23) Which of the following best describes advantages conferred by compound leaves versus simple leaves? A) Theres a greater chance of capturing photons in intermittently shady areas. B) There is lessShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Life? Worksheet1661 Words   |  7 PagesInclude reference citations. 1. Find a media piece—article, video, presentation, song, or other—that recognizes the fundamental concepts of chemistry in biology. Include the link or reference citation for the piece and describe how it helped you better understand how fundamental concepts of chemistry affect biology. Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms. It oversees every living process and organism. According to Arizona State University (2003), â€Å"by controlling theRead MoreMgc Practical Four Write Up. Brianna Golder-Dewar. A1721816.1268 Words   |  6 Pagesprocess will then repeat. (Reece, et al, 2015) A Dissolved Oxygen Electrode can detect the changes of oxygen production when there is a change in its environment. Originating from the Clark electrode, its silver anode and platinum is submerged in a potassium chloride electrolyte solution. When a voltage is applied, the oxygen is reduced and the electrons flow to the cathode. As there is an increase in oxygen, the more electrons that flow to the cathode. (Walker, 1990) Material and Methods The practicalRead MoreIdentification Of Unknown Organisms And Two Eukaryotes3349 Words   |  14 PagesIdentification of Unknown Organisms Benjamin Nibarger Professor Hoffman Monday 11:15 AM Group Members - Jamie Jerome, Natalie Perez, Ruth Pinzon September 27, 2014 â€Æ' Introduction The purpose of this study is to identify four unknown organisms. The unknown organisms have been assigned randomly to six-research groups by Professor Hoffman. Each research group was provided two eukaryotes and two prokaryotes. The unknown organisms will fall into the following classifications: bacteria, algae, fungiRead MoreLab Report Osmosis Essay1683 Words   |  7 Pagesosmosis on artificial cells with different concentrations of sucrose Alex McRae Biology 120-902 Grand Valley State University 1 Campus Drive Allendale, MI 49401 mcraeal@mail.gvsu.edu Abstract In this study, we tested the validity of osmosis in artificial animal cells. Osmosis is the diffusion of free water across a membrane. The purpose of the study was to calculate the rate of osmosis in artificial cells containing different concentrationsRead MoreWHat are Enzymes? Essay1666 Words   |  7 Pagesthat act as a catalyst, and it’s a chemical agent that accelerates the reaction without being consumed by the feedback or the results (Campbell and Reece, 2005). After the adjustment by the enzymes, the chemical movement through the pathways of metabolism will become awfully crowded because many chemical reactions are taking a long time (Campbell and Reece, 2005). There are two kinds of reactions in nature. The first one is Catabolic reaction and the second one is Anabolic reaction. Catabolic reactionsRead MoreEnzymes and pH Concentration1546 Words   |  6 Pagesoxygen and hydroxylated benzenes to give quinines and water. In this study extract of potato tuber were used to test the rate of reaction of enzyme catecholase at different PH and different concentrations. Enzyme activities are affected by many factors. Different experimental conditions such as, PH, enzyme concentration and temperature may modify the enzymes three-dimensional shape and alter its reaction rate. The experiment in this study is to determine the effects of pH and enzyme concentration on theRead MoreEffect of Temperature on the Rate of Movement of Gammarus Stosus1617 Words   |  7 PagesEffect of Temperature on the Rate of Movement of Gammarus setosus Abstract Gammarus setosus is a marine amphipod that is found in the intertidal waters of British Columbia. A study of temperature on the rate of movement of Gammarus setosus was undertaken to find whether temperature would positively or negatively affect the activity of Gammarus setosus. Specimens of Gammarus setosus was obtained and tested. 30 ppt salt water of 5 °C, 23 °C, and 30 °C was used to perform the experiment. TheRead MoreDrosophila Ausomal and Sex-Linked Cross Essay1377 Words   |  6 Pagesgiven us important results with regards to knowing why certain organisms and their expressions are the way they are and how some expressions are suppressed due to those particular expressions being recessive. The reason is because genetics is the study of genes and the effects of it to organisms. Genes are expected to give offspring hereditary similarities to the parent. However, this was not known and Gregory Mendel asked himself what was passed on by parents to their offspring that is the basisRead MoreNatural Selection Paper1502 Words   |  7 Pagesevolution, how natural selection results in biodiversity and why biodiversity is important to continued evolution. The sources of genetic variation such as mutations and sexual recombination will also be reviewed. Mechanisms of Evolution It is said that biology â€Å"came of age† when Charles Darwin published â€Å"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection†. In this book Darwin expressed his concept on the mechanism of evolution: natural selection. He felt that a population could change over generationsRead MoreEssay on Anaerobic Metabolism Report881 Words   |  4 PagesTitle: Anaerobic Metabolism and Exercise Introduction: In this experiment, the purpose of this experiment was to study anaerobic metabolism and blood lactate levels after different periods of rest. Anaerobic metabolism is used when aerobic metabolism can no longer fuel energy needs. Anaerobic metabolism is used in certain conditions such as when in low oxygen conditions and exercising exceeding the capacity for oxygen delivery to tissues and aerobic energy production. In these conditions during

Critical Minerals And Uses Of Precious Metals Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

Today I will supply some background information on which metals are the most built-in to our state ; these metals are widely used in mundane life, in some manner or another, by most Americans. I will besides discourse the beginning and formation of our cherished metals, every bit good as where in the state – and the universe – they are normally found and mined. As with all natural resources, the opportunity of someday running out of these metals is non merely possible, but really likely. We will write a custom essay sample on Critical Minerals And Uses Of Precious Metals Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now I plan to besides discourse solutions to this hereafter job, including the usage of both man-made and naturally-occurring replacements for each type of metal. Cherished metals are considered critical for good ground. They have a broad assortment of applications in industry, engineering, jewellery, and even medical specialty. It is agreed among mineralogists that the most critical minerals which fall under the class of cherished metals are gilded, Ag, and minerals in the Pt metals group: Pt, Pd and Ir. Although the U.S. went off the gilded criterion in 1972 thanks to President Nixon, gold is still normally used in the countries of medical specialty, jewellery, electronics, and industry. The component is lissome and ductile, so it can be transformed into assorted forms and made utile in different facets of industry ; it can even be made so thin that it is about crystalline. Silver, much like gold, besides has an array of utilizations in today ‘s universe. Besides the obvious usage in the jewellery concern, Ag is besides used in dental medicine, medical specialty, electronics – Ag even has a topographic point in the industry of c ertain types of vesture. Platinum group metals, which are known as PGMs, have a broad scope of applications. Platinum is normally used in electronics, catalytic convertors, jewellery, and dental medicine tools. Palladium, which is a comparatively rare metal, is besides used chiefly in catalytic convertors. It is besides used in jewellery, and surgical and dentistry equipment. Iridium besides has many influential applications in scientific discipline and industry ; it lends its belongingss to particle natural philosophies, acetic acid production, and the industry of engines that require corrosion opposition. Beginnings, Uses, and Supply of Gold Beginning and Beginnings of Gold In naturally-occurring sedimentations, gold ( atomic symbol Au ) is found in the signifier of single nuggets ; it is besides found as grains and flakes in certain stones, or as venas. A vena is a mass of crystallised mineral found within a stone, normally formed as a consequence of deposition from after the necessary mineral elements are carried to the topographic point via an aqueous solution and precipitated out of the solution. Alternately, gold can be found in alluvial sedimentations – by and large as nuggets – which are unconsolidated sedimentations of deposit that have been eroded or otherwise shaped by H2O outside of a marine environment. By and large the gold found in ores is really little, but in some exceeding instances, really big nuggets have been found. Gold that occurs together with either vitreous silica or sulphide minerals – such as fool’s gold, besides known as â€Å" Fool ‘s Gold † – is called a load sedimentation. Be cause gold has such a low thaw temperature compared to other metals, it is readily carried by hydrothermal solutions as a consequence of chilling magma, and so solidifies alongside the vitreous silica. One of the best topographic points to happen gold sedimentations is near the invasion of environing stone by a cooled magma organic structure. These lode sedimentations normally form inside clefts ( known as crevices ) within a slab of stone. Gold can besides be recycled from scrap stuff, and 190 dozenss of gold were recovered this manner in 2009 in the U.S. The most common geographic locations for gold excavation worldwide are southeasterly Australia, East Asia, parts of South America and Africa, and parts of the United States. Gold militias are highest in South Africa ( 6,000 dozenss ) , Australia ( 5,800 dozenss ) , and Russia ( 6,000 dozenss ) . Militias are different from mined measures because the gold in militias is held by a cardinal bank of a peculiar state, and used purely for payment to other states or organisations. The U.S. shops about 3,000 dozenss of gold in its pecuniary militias. Along with the Treasury ‘s Stockpile, the Department of Defense runs a Cherished Metallic elements Recovery Program ( PMRP ) , which works to achieve cherished metals for economic intents. Specifically, the DOD recovers cherished metals from metal bearing stuffs such as photographic and X-ray stuff ( from infirmaries, printing installations, exposure labs ) ; metal dust collected from vacuity sweepers ; and scrap/waste metals from industrial workss. The PMRP focuses on the metals discussed in this testimony, every bit good as Os, Rh, and Ru. Harmonizing to the British Geological Survey, as of 2005 the top location for gold excavation was South Africa, with a sum of about 294 dozenss produced. In 2008, the gold excavation industry in South Africa produced 2260 dozenss. But even though much of the universe ‘s gold comes from South Africa and China, there is some to be found in the U.S. The most abundant beginnings of coal in the U.S. are found in mines in South Dakota and Nevada. Uses of Gold The most common usage of gold today is for the industry of jewellery. Gold is besides an ideal industrial metal due to its opposition to corrosion, every bit good as its electrical conduction for usage in machine equipment and electronics parts. Harmonizing to the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) , approximately 90 % of gold brought into the market yearly ends up in manufactured merchandises, while the staying part of it goes to both private investors and pecuniary militias. In 2009, 72 % of mined gold was used for jewellery, 7 % was used for electronics, and 21 % went into dental equipment and other assorted utilizations. Domestic Supply of Gold In January of this twelvemonth, the USGS published a trade good study on gold for the old twelvemonth ( 2009 ) . Harmonizing to this study, gold was retrieved at 50 load mines, every bit good as a few placer mines, all of which are in Alaska. As a side note, the difference between the two types of mines is that a load mine occurs within solid stones ( for illustration, in a vena ) , while a topographic point mine is an alluvial sedimentation – normally of sand or crushed rock – which besides contains of import minerals and metals such as gold. Smaller placer mines in Alaska and a few of the western United States besides yielded gold. A smaller sum of the 2009 gold supply besides came as by-products from Cu excavation operations. In the last few old ages, the purchase of gilded jewellery has decreased well, doing monetary values to increase. Last twelvemonth, gold mines in Nevada showed significant lessening in production, while a mine in Montana and another in Nevada closed, to farther cut down production. In 2009, the mean monetary value of gilded jewellery rose over 20 % higher than the mean monetary value in 2008. Due to recent labour jobs in gilded mines of South Africa, the rubric of top gold manufacturer shifted to China, with Australia and the U.S. following near behind. Although comparatively important sums of gold are mined here in the U.S. , a good part of it comes from these international beginnings. Last twelvemonth, 210 dozenss of gold were mined in the U.S. , and gold militias in the U.S. totaled 3,000 dozenss. Import Beginnings of Gold Although China is presently the universe ‘s top manufacturer of gold, none of our imported gold comes from at that place. Alternatively, the gold import statistics are broken down as follows ( for the old ages 2005-2008, the most recent records from the USGS ) : Canada – 30 % Peru – 29 % Mexico – 16 % Chile – 9 % Other – 16 % Beginnings, Uses, and Supply of Silver Beginning and Beginnings of Silver Silver ( atomic symbol Ag ) , a soft passage metal, of course occurs as an metal with gold ; it is besides found in its native signifier, and in ores along with S and arsenous anhydride. However, the chief beginnings of Ag are really copper, lead, and nickel ores, which are mined in parts of South America, Mexico, China, Australia, and eastern European states such as Serbia and Poland. Mines which produce the highest planetary sums of Ag are located in Mexico, Australia, Russia, Peru, and, here in the U.S. , in Alaska. Silver, like most metals, organize compounds with sulphides inside the Earth ‘s crust. Metal sulfides which have dissolved in hot, piquant H2O within the crust finally precipitate as different minerals when they come into contact with ice chest H2O or air. Silver precipitates as a mixture with these other sulphides, which is how it is finally found at or closer to the Earth ‘s surface. It is usually found as a constituent of hydrothermal venas. Silver occurs natively, and is comparatively pure in this signifier. It besides occurs as ores, such as argenite ( Ag2S ) and chlorargyrite ( AgCl ) , and is recovered as a consequence of the Cu refinement procedure. Uses of Silver Silver is largely used for the intents of jewellery, utensils, industrial equipment, coins and decorations, and picture taking. The USGS notes that Ag has the highest thermal and electric conduction of all the metals. Pure Ag besides exhibits the whitest colour of any metal, every bit good as the highest optical coefficient of reflection. Because it has such powerful optical belongingss, it is used often to do mirrors. The USGS besides notes that the most common single-end usage of Ag is picture taking ; in this country, Ag can be found on photo paper, movie, and in darkroom and exposure lab chemicals used for publishing exposure. However, the demand for Ag in picture taking has declined significantly, from 2,290 dozenss in 1999 to around 900 dozenss in 2009 ; this is likely due to the rapid passage from traditional 35mm picture taking to digital picture taking worldwide. Harmonizing to the USGS, Ag is even used in vesture to decrease olfactory property. Domestic Supply of Silver In a mineral trade good sum-up of 2009 published in January 2010, the USGS provinces that the U.S. mined about 1,230 dozenss of silver- this supply of Ag was deserving about $ 520 million. As with gold, most of the state ‘s Ag comes from Alaska, with Nevada coming in at a close second. Last twelvemonth, 1,500 dozenss of Ag were recovered through refinement, including bit metal. The USGS notes that unlike gold, there is no authorities reserve of Ag. In the 1950s when the authorities reserve of Ag was at its highest, the U.S. Treasury was in ownership of the cheapest Ag, while any silver outside the Treasury significantly rose in monetary value. Since the authorities ‘s Ag was so inexpensive, demand increased steadily until the reserve disappeared wholly. Since Ag is no longer used to do American coins, there merely is no demand for authorities reserve. Aside from the measures of Ag we mine in the U.S. , we besides to a great extent on Ag imports from other states. Import Beginnings of Silver Over half of the Ag used in our today really comes from Mexico, with important sums coming from Canada and South America every bit good. Between 2005 and 2008, the import of Ag into the U.S. can be broken down as follows: Mexico – 54 % Canada – 26 % Peru – 15 % Chile – 3 % Other – 2 % Two-thirdss of the universe ‘s Ag trade goods came from treating Cu, gold and lead-zinc ores in 2009. From 2005-2008, the U.S. exported a sum of 3,850 metric dozenss of Ag to other states. More late, in 2009, we merely exported 360 dozenss to other states. Beginnings, Uses, and Supply of Platinum Beginning and Beginnings of Platinum The three most common and of import members of the Platinum Group Metals are Pt, Pd, and Ir. Platinum ( atomic symbol Pt ) is another malleable passage metal. Platinum is an improbably rare metal, and occurs at a concentration of merely 0.005 parts per million ( ppm ) in the Earth ‘s crust. The celebrated Bushveld Complex in South Africa is the top modesty of Pt in the universe. Harmonizing to the USGS, in 2009 South Africa produced the highest sum of Pt – 80 % of the universe ‘s Pt trade good, to be exact. Russia produced the 2nd highest sum of Pt that twelvemonth, at merely 11 % . Platinum can be found natively or as an metal with Ir. An metal is a solid solution of two or metals, in which the atom of one metal occupies unfastened infinites between the atoms of the other metal. Both Pt and Ir occur in perceptibly greater copiousness at the site of big meteorite impacts. This can be explained by the fact that the Moon and other extraterrestrial organic structures – particularly meteorites – incorporate a much higher copiousness of Pt and Ir than any topographic point on this planet. On Earth, Pt combined with other PGMs are frequently found in alluvial sedimentations. Some little Pt militias located in North America include the Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, and the Absaroka Mountain scope in Montana. Uses of Platinum Platinum is a various metal that is really immune to staining, doing it another metal that is ideally suited for jewellery. It besides has first-class catalytic and electrical belongingss. Platinum has many utilizations in the chemical industry as a accelerator, and is used often in the production of fertilisers and explosives. Platinum even plays a function in the crude oil industry, in the refinement of petroleum oil and the production of gasolene. Harmonizing to the USGS, since 1979, the automotive industry has been the primary user of all PGMs, particularly Pt. PGMs are used often in catalytic convertors to keep acceptable exhaust emanation criterions. Platinum is a common metal used in jewellery industry and watch-making. Domestic Supply of Platinum and Other PGMs The lone two runing PGM mines in the U.S. as of 2009 were the Stillwater and East-Boulder mines in Montana. Combined, these mines produced 3,800 dozenss of Pt, 12,500 dozenss of Pd, and 1,300 dozenss of Ir in 2009. Small sums of PGMs may frequently be recovered from Cu excavation processes ; and, as with most metals, PGMs are recovered and recycled from other bit metal. Approximately 18 dozenss of PGMs were recovered in this mode last twelvemonth. About 900,000 dozenss of PGMs are presently in militias ; this means that they could be extracted for economic intents at a clip of much greater demand. Estimates of militias merely see the stuff that can realistically be recovered. The worsening economic system over the last few old ages has caused a reduced demand in car gross revenues, which in bend has caused less of a demand in PGMs since they are widely used in autos ‘ catalytic convertors. However, as research continues for the usage of fuel cells in autos, the demand for PGMs may increase once more – Pd is an cheap option to platinum in the accelerators of such autos. Import Beginnings of Platinum and Other PGMs The USGS provides a dislocation of imported PGMs from other economically of import states: Platinum: South Africa – 27 % Germany – 17 % U.K. – 12 % Canada – 5 % Other – 39 % Palladium: Russia – 46 % South Africa – 21 % U.K. – 17 % Belgium – 4 % Other – 12 % Beginnings and Uses of Palladium Beginning and Beginnings of Palladium Palladium ( atomic symbol Pd ) is another PGM considered to be a rare component. It is pale Ag in colour, bearing a close resemblance to platinum but with a much lower denseness and runing point. In fact, out of all the PGMs, Pd exhibits both the lowest denseness and runing point. Ore sedimentations of Pd are non common, but like the Pt, Pd has been found in its highest copiousness in the Bushveld Complex of South Africa. In North America, it can be found in the Sudbury Basin in Ontario and the Stillwater Complex in Montana. These â€Å" composites † are known superimposed pyrogenic invasions ( LIIs ) or layered mafic intrustions ( LMIs ) . These abbreviations can be used interchangeably, since â€Å" mafic † is a descriptive term for an pyrogenic stone that is dark in colour and rich in Fe and Mg. LIIs are big, superimposed organic structures of pyrogenic stone found in ancient cratons. A craton is a really old, stable subdivision of the Continental crust. The formation of LMIs requires a big volume of magma over a short period of clip, happening within the Continental crust so that they finally become exposed at the surface due to eroding. Layering of these invasions occurs from alterations in mineralogy and texture. Most LMIs, including the Bushveld Complex and Sudbury Basin, are Precambrian in age. ( The Precambrian encompasses the creative activity of earth 4.6 billion old ages ago to about 542 million old ages ago. Precambrian minerals and stones are the oldest on Earth. ) Uses of Palladium Palladium ‘s chief usage today is in catalytic convertors, due to its really stable electrical belongingss and optimum catalytic belongingss. This metal is used to fabricate medical and dental medicine equipment aircraft flicker stopper, and, like Pt, jewellery and tickers. It makes a good jewellery replacement for white gold and Pt, particularly since its picket Ag colour is natural and it is reasonably hard to state the three metals apart merely by looking at them. Up until comparatively late, Pd ‘s chief usage in the jewellery trade was as an metal to assistance in doing white gold. In the electronic industry, Pd and palladium-silver metals are used to do platings in common electronics. Palladium, every bit good as the other cherished metals, is particularly of import in electronics because of how frequently computing machines are used in merely about every facet of life today – in occupations, research, schools, and places. Metallic elements with superior elect rical belongingss are used to do computing machine french friess implemented in CPUs, cell phones, and iPods, merely to call a few devices most people use day-to-day. Palladium can be one of the by-products of atomic fission, and can be recovered – though non needfully in important sums – from spent atomic fuel. Beginnings and Uses of Iridium Beginning and Beginnings of Iridium Iridium ( atomic symbol Ir ) is the 3rd most familiar and widely-used PGM. Although it is highly rare in the Earth ‘s crust, hint sums can still be found. Iridium is a well-known PGM due to its abnormally high concentration in a bed of clay at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary ( normally abbreviated as the K-T boundary ) . As celebrated earlier in my testimony, Ir ( along with Pt ) is found at much higher concentrations in meteorites than anyplace on Earth ; this cognition is one of the cardinal pieces of back uping grounds for a meteorite impact at the terminal of the Cretaceous Period ( about 65 million old ages ago ) , which finally would hold caused the dinosaurs to travel extinct. One of the rarest elements on Earth, Ir occurs at 0.001 ppm in the Earth ‘s crust – whereas in meteorites, the concentration is significantly greater at 0.5 ppm. As with Pt and Pd, the highest concentrations of Ir are found in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. Very little sums of this metal are found in the U.S. and the remainder of the universe, most notably in impact crater and pyrogenic invasions. Along with its other PGM relations, Ir is often found in Cu and nickel metal. Since all three of these cherished metals portion similar physical and chemical features, it comes as no surprise that they are normally found together and portion similar utilizations in industry and fabrication patterns. Uses of Iridium Iridium is acquired through the excavation processes of Ni and Cu, and is a by-product of the two. As with Pt, Ir is really immune to corrosion and wear, so it finds many utilizations in assorted industries. Iridium by itself is used in direct-ignition engines, where its first-class catalytic belongingss come in utile and let the engines to run decently. Natural Substitutes for Cherished Metallic elements With the possibility of our cherished metals resources going depleted, we are now turning even more towards the usage of naturally-occurring replacements for these peculiar metals. Silver and PGMs make suited replacements for gold, particularly in the industry of jewellery. Harmonizing to the USGS, base metals reinforced by gold metals have excellent usage in electronics. This method is besides used in jewellery, and allows a jewelry maker to sell the merchandise as gold while utilizing less of the metal itself. Stainless steel is a common replacement for Ag. In fact, most mean kitchen utensils are no longer made of Ag ; a speedy hunt for â€Å" silverware † on any common shopping web site will demo that most kitchen utensils are made of unstained steel instead than Ag. In picture taking, many factors now contribute to the cutback of Ag usage, including movie with diminished Ag content and digital picture taking. Aluminum and Rh are normally used to replace Ag in mirrors and other brooding surfaces. Many of the common PGMs frequently substitute for each other. For illustration, some car shapers have begun utilizing Pd in topographic point of Pt – which is more expensive – in catalytic convertors. Additionally, shapers of electronic constituents are cut downing the sum of Pd used by replacing base metals or silver-palladium metals that contain somewhat less Pd. We can surely populate without jewellery, but in such a technology-dominated society, we about can non populate without electronics, particularly computing machines ; and, although it works for some people, it would be unrealistic to believe we can populate without cars. Therefore, it is particularly of import to be cognizant of the supply of, and replacements for, cherished metals, since they are used on a regular basis in these facets of life. Recommendations for Policy Related to Cherished Metallic elements An appraisal of critical minerals conducted by the National Research Council in 2008 offered basic suggestions that can be applied to cherished metals every bit good: Identify critical metals and merchandises made from them that are important to industry and engineering. Address the beginnings of cherished metals and the planetary production/use of their terminal merchandises. Address any geologic, technologic, economic or political restrictions on the handiness of cherished metals. Acknowledge the effects of any breaks in the supply of cherished metals in the economic system and work force. These recommendations serve as a foundation and a starting point for farther research on cherished metal use: how they are acquired, when and why they might run out, the effects of acquisition ( excavation ) and what the U.S. authorities can make to turn to these issues. Our state ‘s metal resources are limited and will finally run out. Unlike fresh H2O, which is easy recycled thanks to H2O renewal workss, the per centum of metals we get from recycling is smaller than the per centum we attain from excavation. Mineral formation is a slow geologic procedure, so the refilling of these resources any clip in the close hereafter is non even an thought to see. Logically, if we mine at a faster gait than that at which the minerals are of course replaced, finally these resources will be depleted. For the clip being, we are able to trust on other states to export cherished metals to the U.S. , but their resources are limited as good. We need to take action to guarantee that we preserve these resources. As I have discussed in this testimony, these cherished metals serve a broad array of intents, and it would be a shame for them to run out in our life-time, which is a possibility. We need to measure how long we have before our resources run out. Government bureaus that deal with mineral issues, such as the U.S. Geological Survey, are responsible for carry oning mineral resource appraisals and mineral-environmental appraisals. These appraisals can help the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service to better manage land usage for excavation intents. The Mineral Resource Program ( MRP ) of the USGS is in charge of supplying information and research about the usage and supply of our minerals, including cherished metals. In 2003, the National Research Council ( NRC ) addressed four undertakings of the federal authorities in mineral scientific disciplines: Supply an indifferent beginning of information, accessible to the populace. Conduct general research on mineral resources. Support of minerals-related international activities that benefit the U.S. Advise, when necessary, on minerals use and direction. The MRP besides takes into history the sum of undiscovered metals that are likely located in an country. When an initial study was completed as portion of the MRP, the USGS admitted that it was during a clip of significant passage within the bureau ; this included decrease in staff members, important restructuring of the Geologic Division, decrease in installations, and alterations both in ends and leading – all marks that more updated appraisals of our metal resources need to take topographic point. A new MRP survey should turn to our state ‘s present and long-run metal demands. The precedence for an updated survey should be to supply scientific evidences that would let for informed decision-making as to how much of the state ‘s land should go on to be used for excavation, and how we can run into future metal demands despite low resources in the U.S. Mining minerals and metals has negative impacts on the environment. When metals are mined, important sums of toxins are released into the environment, particularly into the dirt and groundwater. Pollution of dirt and H2O is considered secondary taint, and is damaging to agriculture and works life, every bit good as our imbibing H2O supply. The processing and refinement on metal ores can besides foul the air. In recent old ages, with subjects like planetary clime alteration taking centre phase, environmental impacts of merely about anything should ever be taken into history. Consideration of environmental effects is of import in guaranting that land is non overused for mining even more than it is overused for other patterns such as agribusiness. Furthermore, it would be good to analyze how metal sedimentations behave geochemically when exposed to enduring procedures, every bit good as the environmental effects of these reactions. If this affair contributes at all to the lessening in o ur mineral supply, research on the topic may let us to forestall this lessening. A new MRP survey should sketch possible results of environmental impacts of metal excavation, which should be taken into consideration by the BLM when doing land-use determinations. Additionally, research demands to research the possibility of utilizing man-made ( semisynthetic ) substitutes for these cherished metals. When makers want to be use replacements for a certain metal, they by and large use a different naturally-occurring metal. Since we are at hazard of utilizing up our metal resources, it would be good to develop man-made versions of gold, Ag, and PGMs. These replacements should possess the same desirable qualities, including catalytic and electrical conduction. Another manner to cut back on metals usage is to recycle. Many states, including the U.S. , already used recycled stuff from bit metal, but merely little per centums of metals used today come from recycled beginnings. In 2009, 190 dozenss of gold came from recycled bit metal in the U.S. , compared to 210 dozenss mined. Merely 17,000 kgs ( merely 17 metric dozenss ) of PGMs were recovered from bit metal in the U.S. last twelvemonth, compared to 16,300 dozenss that came from mines. The exclusion is silver: in 2009, 1,500 dozenss of Ag in the U.S. came from recycled stuff, exceling the 1,230 dozenss that were mined. Even though metals are recycled, bureaus like the USGS can rede makers on new ways to retrieve even more material from bit metal. Metal processing workss should besides work to implement new ways of treating natural mined metals so that less of the metals are lost before being refined into the concluding merchandise. Not merely would that scheme be economical, but it would b e much less uneconomical excessively. Development and execution of synthetics, increased recycling, and more efficient metals treating might someday even let the U.S. to halt excavation all together, which in bend would cut down any harmful effects on the environment. The USGS, and any other federal organisations chosen to roll up and form critical minerals informations, should hold more authorization when it comes to policies affecting the recovery and usage of cherished metals. Surveies to better our usage of metals, as outlined above, should have the proper support, and multiple federal bureaus need to work together to spread out basic scientific research, and to advance the usage of new thoughts and engineering to better understand the effects, effects, and benefits of cherished metal use. Decision Cherished metals – specifically gold, Ag, and the platinum-group metals – serve many valuable intents in our economic system and our day-to-day lives. But merely as our oil resources will finally run out, so our cherished metals will someday go depleted every bit good. Until farther surveies are conducted, we will go on to be limited in our apprehension of how rapidly these cherished metal resources will run out. We must besides research any possible major environmental injury that may come from mining these metals, and what, if anything, we can make to extenuate such injury. How to cite Critical Minerals And Uses Of Precious Metals Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

Zero waste Scotland Plan and Circular Economy

Question: Write an essay on Operators in the Waste Collection Services industry? Answer: Zero waste Scotland plan and circular economy Research Topic: Operators in the Waste Collection Services industry collect hazardous and nonhazardous waste and transport it to disposal facilities. They also operate transfer stations, which are intermediate facilities used to store and treat waste before it is fully disposed of. This industry does not include government-provided waste collection services, which currently carry out one-quarter of all waste collection in the country. The Waste Collection Services industry has performed well in recent years and is forecast to grow at an annualized rate of 1.7% over the five years to 2015. While revenue fell during the recession, the Waste Collection Services industry was less affected than many other industries were. Households will typically not radically reduce the amount of waste they produce, even during difficult economic times. Further, the Waste Collection Services industry has benefited over the past five years from the recovery of the industrial, construction and commercial sectors. As these sectors have expanded, they have produced more waste, generating demand for industry services. This industry has also benefited from the trend of municipalities privatizing waste collection. With many municipalities in debt after the financial collapse, local governments have been tightening their budgets and waste collection has often been one of the first services to go. This has increased demand for private waste collection services, further strengthening industry revenue growth. Industry revenue is expected to continue to expand in 2015, growing 0.7% to $44.6 billion. The Waste Collection Services industry is expected to continue to grow over the following five years, largely due to population growth. Given relatively static rates of per capita waste generation, as the Scotland population increases, national waste generation rises as well. Continued economic recovery, especially in the construction sector, will further increase overall waste production, expanding demand for industry services. The industry will also benefit from the public's increasing demand for recycling services. Industry revenue will gain a boost because recycling collection services are more expensive than standard waste collection services. As a result, industry revenue is expected to increase at the annualized rate of 1.1% to $47.0 billion over the five years to 2020. Current Performance The Waste Collection Services industry has grown moderately over the past five years. Although industry revenue fell during the recession, this collapse was less dramatic than it was for more cyclical industries. Given that this industry's purpose is to collect and transport waste, industry revenue primarily depends on the amount of waste produced. While industrial and construction waste generation was very low in the aftermath of the recession, residential waste, the production of which depends primarily on the size of the population, remained fairly stable, propping up industry demand. Since 2010, industrial and construction waste generation has been slowly rising alongside the recovery of business and construction, increasing demand for waste collection services and, therefore, industry revenue. As a result, industry revenue is expected to grow at an annualized rate of 1.7% over the five years to 2015. In 2015, industry revenue is forecast to grow 0.7% to $44.6 billion. Recycling and privatization In conjunction with the return to long-run rates of waste generation, a number of external trends are expected to help spur industry expansion. Government legislation and public consciousness have pushed for a greater demand for recycling services. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the percentage of municipal solid waste that was recycled grew from 28.5% to 34.5% between 2000 and 2012. While it is more difficult to collect separated recyclable materials than unsorted waste, waste collection service providers are able to charge higher prices for the collection of recyclables and are also able to sell recyclable materials to recycling facilities instead of paying to dump their waste at a landfill. Therefore, increased recycling has been a source of increased industry revenue. Waste management services have traditionally been the responsibility of municipal governments, funding public waste collection services through the local tax base. Over time, however, many municipalities have discontinued this service, allowing private operators to take their place. Following the financial crisis, many municipalities across the United States found themselves in dire financial positions. As a result, many slashed their budgets, often cutting public waste collection services. With municipalities in need of alternative waste collection service providers, demand for industry services grew in the years following the crisis, leading to growth in industry revenue. Revenue growth in the Waste Collection Services industry resulted in an expansion in the number of active industry operators. As new companies enter the market to take advantage of increased demand for industry services, the number of industry operators is anticipated to grow at an annualized rate of 1.7% to 8,334 companies over the five years to 2015. The increase in industry operators and the expansion in operations of existing enterprises have also encouraged growth in industry employment. The number of industry employees is expected to increase at an annualized rate of 1.7% to 202,305 total workers over the five years to 2015. Declining and rebounding profit While industry revenue has been steadily increasing since 2010, profit margins were in decline for the majority of the five years to 2015. This decline was driven primarily by growth in fuel prices; diesel fuel powers the majority of waste collection vehicles and constitutes the largest component of the industry's spending on purchases between 2010 and 2014. Growing fuel prices over this period were exacerbated by growing public support for fewer and larger landfill sites located further from population centers. As a result, the distance that waste must travel for disposal has risen, increasing the quantity of fuel needed to continue industry operations. Some industry operators have started developing ways to convert collection trucks to run on less-expensive fuels, such as biofuels and natural gas. However, this process is costly, as it involves designing a company's collection fleet. Other operators are using rail to transport large quantities of waste. While rail transportation is becoming more cost effective for large loads of waste, greater use of rail transport requires investment in rail containers and transfer stations. Industry service prices were raised over this period, but not enough to offset increases in input costs. The growing distance between landfills and population centers also resulted in an expansion of transfer centers. Transfer centers, located between waste collection zones and waste disposal sites, are used to compact waste to be loaded onto larger transport vehicles that then transport the waste to a landfill. While helpful for managing large amounts of waste from disparate locations, they are costly to maintain. Finally, growth in industry regulation has also led to increased industry costs. The Waste Collection Services industry has been very highly regulated for decades, given the potential negative environmental and public health impacts that can result from the improper disposal of waste. Core industry regulation is outlined in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, which establishes specific guidelines for the proper transport, treatment, storage and disposal of waste. More recently, state and local governments have established new requirements for the sector. Some newer regulations can help spur demand for industry services and increase industry revenue. For example, legislation passed in March 2014 in Massachusetts prevents businesses from disposing of their food waste in a landfill if they produce more than one ton of food waste a week. This will likely force businesses in Massachusetts to hire more waste collection service providers to process and collect their separated food waste, increasing industry revenue. Other regulations, however, serve to increase industry costs. For example, flow control legislation allows state governments to specifically direct where waste is disposed of. This forces industry operators to transport waste to less conveniently located disposal facilities, raising industry costs. Driven by the factors described above, industry margins fell between 2010 and 2014. However, this trend reversed in the second half of 2014, as the collapse in oil prices has sent fuel prices spiraling downwards. As fuel prices have decreased, industry purchases costs have fallen substantially, driving profit margins upwards. As a result, industry profit margins are expected to only fall slightly between 2010 and 2015. Industry Outlook The Waste Collection Services industry is expected to continue to grow over the five years to 2020, with the industry's financial performance tied to growth in the volume of waste generation. In addition, the industry is also anticipated to continue implementing cleaner and greener practices as it becomes more closely affiliated with recycling and renewable energy activities. Operators' ability to manage the implementation of greater environmental and public health regulations will be a major factor of success in upcoming years. Revenue and profit growth Industry revenue is expected to grow at an annualized rate of 1.1% over the five years to 2020 to $47.0 billion. This growth will be primarily driven by continued growth in waste generation. The volume of municipal solid waste generated in the United States is projected to grow an annualized rate of 0.5% over the five years to 2020, primarily due to population growth and increased business and construction activity. The Scotland population is projected to expand at an annualized rate of 0.7% over the same period, with the per capita volume of waste generated expected to remain steady at its current level of 4.4 pounds per day. Thus, population growth will result in steady increases in waste generation that will ensure continued stable demand for industry services. The Waste Collection Services industry will also experience growth stemming from the continued recovery of the Scotland economy. Stronger economic growth will boost consumer and business spending, leading to increased residential and commercial waste generation. More importantly, construction is expected to grow strongly as this sector finally recovers from a period of very low activity, which will greatly boost the amount of construction site waste that is produced. These increases in waste generation will boost demand for waste collection services, consequently increasing industry revenue. As the Waste Collection Services industry continues to grow, so will the number of industry operators and the size of overall industry employment. As new companies enter the industry to take advantage of growing demand for waste collection services, the number of enterprises operating in this industry is expected to grow at an annualized rate of 2.2% over the five years to 2020 to 9,285 total companies. These fledgling operators, as well as established players, are expected to hire more workers to serve new customers. Consequently, the number of industry employees is anticipated to grow at an annualized rate of 1.5% over the five years to 2020 to 218,427 total workers. While industry profit margins declined slightly over the past five-year period, they are expected to rise marginally over the five years to 2020 to 8.5% of revenue. Fuel prices, which have already fallen substantially in line with the recent collapse in oil prices, are anticipated to continue to drop in upcoming years as this decline continues to be passed down to refined petroleum products, including gasoline and diesel fuel. Further, demand for recycling collection services, which carries a higher profit margin than the collection of unsorted waste, will continue to expand. Growing vertical integration with waste disposal services will reduce tipping fees, the cost of paying to use a landfill. Finally, cost-saving technologies that have already been invested in, such as more fuel-efficient garbage trucks, will begin to pay off in cost efficiency gains. Recycling's impact Recycling activity has been trending upward over the past 30 years. In 1985, 16.7 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) was recycled, yielding a recycling rate of 10.1% of municipal solid waste, according to figures from the Environmental Protection Agency. Comparatively, 34.5% of MSW, or 86.6 million tons, was recycled in 2012 (latest data available), displaying tremendous growth in recycling from all sources of waste production. The rate of recycling is expected to continue increasing over the next five years. Over this period, state and local government regulations will aim to achieve higher recycling rates from households and businesses, boosting demand for recycling services. For example, California requires 50.0% of waste to be diverted from the waste stream, with legislators considering a bill to raise the rate of diversion to 75.0%. New York City is also planning to double the percentage of its waste that is recycled between 2013 and 2017. Additionally, Massachusetts has banned the landfill disposal of concrete, asphalt, brick, metals, some paper products and wood. The largest recycler in the Waste Collection Services industry, Waste Management Inc., plans to increase the volume of recyclable material it manages from 8.0 million tons to 20.0 million tons by 2020. Recycling has historically been an unrewarding business, with low profit margins, volatile prices for recycled material and uncertain supplies of recyclable waste available for recycling facilities. However, regulatory and technological changes will likely stabilize recycling operations and improve profitability. The collection of recyclable material is expected to become a much more pronounced component of municipal government waste collection contracts; a growing quantity of this waste will help increase the segment's attractiveness. Waste is collected from commercial, industrial and residential customers. It may be collected from curbside trash cans or from specially provided metal containers on commercial and industrial sites. Once collected, the waste is normally taken to a transfer facility to be prepared for transport to disposal facilities. At transfer stations, waste is unloaded from collection vehicles, briefly held, compacted and then reloaded onto larger long-distance transport vehicles, typically by road or rail. The distance from collection to disposal sites has been increasing, as landfill sites are being placed farther away from population centers. Combining the loads of multiple individual waste collection trucks lowers operating and transport costs. Nonresidential waste collection services Commercial waste collection services include the collection of municipal solid waste (MSW) from commercial premises and the collection of industrial waste. The volume of nonresidential waste requiring collection is more sensitive to changes in economic activity than that of residential waste. Hence, nonresidential waste volume declined more heavily during and in the aftermath of the recession than did residential waste. In 2015, 32.0% of industry revenue is anticipated to be generated through the provision of commercial and industrial waste collection services. The California Integrated Waste Management Board has found that food stores generated the highest volume of waste at 16,579 pounds per employee per year. Of this waste, about 71.0% is diverted for recycling. Fast-food restaurants generate on average 6,528 pounds of waste material per employee and divert about 35.0%. Durable wholesalers generate the highest amounts of hazardous waste, with about 400 pounds of used oil and battery waste per employee. Residential waste collection services Residential waste collection services generate the second largest share of industry revenue, comprising an estimated 24.6% of industry revenue. This service segment fared better than most segments during the recession as households generally do not greatly reduce the amount of waste they produce even during economic downturns. Residential waste collection services are normally the responsibility of local municipalities who either undertake the waste collection themselves or contract out the collection service to private companies. However, the market share of residential waste collection for this industry has been increasing as more local governments privatize their collection services. Residential collection may also be undertaken on a subscription basis, where the household pays a contractor directly for collection of household waste. Recyclable material collection services Recycling collection services are normally provided either based on the requirements of local laws or as part of a contract with municipal governments. The share of revenue from the collection of recyclable material has grown over the past five years and is expected to continue increasing through 2020 as local and state governments act to increase the level of recycling. Municipal contracts for waste collection may require that recyclable collection services be offered. The largest recycler, Waste Management Inc., managed about 8.0 million tons of recyclable commodities in 2014, up from under 3.0 million tons in 2010. The same company plans to triple the amount of recyclable material it manages through 2020. For the industry as a whole, the collection of recyclable materials is set to grow in importance during the coming decade. Transfer and storage facility services Transfer facility services are expected to generate 15.2% of industry revenue in 2015. Services are typically offered by larger waste collection firms that operate transfer stations. According to the environmental protection agency, transfer stations are facilities where solid waste is unloaded from collection vehicles and briefly held while it is reloaded onto larger long-distance transport vehicles for shipment to landfills or other treatment or disposal facilities. This segment has increased over the past five years as larger operators look to increase their scale. Construction site, hazardous and other waste collection services Other industry-related services include hazardous waste collection, urban sweeping services, snowplowing and others. The collection of construction and demolition (CD) site waste also falls under this category. This type of waste comprises mainly wood, concrete, rubble and other building materials. Revenue from the collection of CD waste is sensitive to the level of residential and commercial construction and remodeling. Housing starts are expected to rise strongly over the next five years, raising this segment's share of revenue. Furthermore, strengthening commercial construction is anticipated to further boost this segment. Demand Determinants The collection and disposal of household waste has historically been the responsibility of local government. In the past therefore, a major determinant of demand in this industry had been the tendency of local governments to contract out waste collection operations to private industry operators. With the majority of waste collection now privatized, attention has shifted to the volume of waste and the range of collection services provided as the main drivers of demand. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the volume of municipal solid waste (MSW) produced per household and per business has remained relatively stable since 1990, hovering near 4.34 pounds per person per day. Certain trends, such as the aging of the population and a reduction in the size of households, may push this number down over time. However, any minor reduction in the amount of waste produced per person will not be enough to offset the increase in waste generation that will accompany the continued growth of the Scotland population, which along with the rate of business formation is the primary determinant of waste production. As a result, consistent growth in the amount of municipal solid waste produced in the Scotland will provide a stable source of demand for this industry's services. The volume of industrial, construction and demolition waste is more volatile, responding to changes in the level of economic activity. The quantity of construction and demolition waste is particularly sensitive to changes in construction industry. In fact, much of the short term decline in overall waste production that followed the recession is due to the slowdown in residential construction. The introduction of local and state regulations mandating increased levels of recycling as well as growing environmental consciousness are expected to have a large impact on demand for collection services over the five years to 2020. For example, Massachusetts has banned landfill disposal of concrete, asphalt, brick, metals, some paper products and wood. Such mandates, which require more precise and targeted waste collection, will likely increase demand for industry services. Furthermore, these types of regulations increase the use of contractors to supply and collect containers used to separate the different types of waste from building and industrial sites. In general, these trends will encourage waste management companies to increasingly provide recyclable collection services to households, businesses and industries. Commercial and business companies Commercial customers include schools, hospitals and businesses (office, retail and food service). These customers are normally supplied with containers of various sizes and types, depending on the type of waste they generate. Customers store their waste in these containers between pickup dates. Commercial contract fees are normally based on the frequency of collection, cost of disposal, equipment or containers provided and the type and volume of waste. Contracts normally run for one to three years and may be renewed. Commercial services also include the collection of recyclables. The market share occupied by commercial customers diminished slightly in 2010 but is expected to rise to account for an estimated 32.7% of industry revenue in 2015 as the economy strengthens. Industrial and construction companies Industrial customers are provided with similar products and services to commercial customers, including containers of various sizes, most of which can be hydraulically placed on collection trucks. The construction industry and home renovators generate construction and demolition waste. The market share occupied by industry and construction was the hardest hit of any segment at the start of the five year period to 2015 as industrial, construction and remodeling activity plummeted. Improved industrial and manufacturing output and a recovery in construction activity is expected to boost revenue in these segments and improve their share of total industry revenue in 2015. Individuals and households Nearly all Scotland households have access to curbside waste collection services. These services are provided either through contracts with municipal governments (which is included in the government and not-for-profit organizations market segment) or via household subscriptions arranged directly with waste collection companies. Individuals also contract the services of waste collection operators for specific one-time tasks. For example, individuals may contract out industry operators to remove a tree that has been cut down on their property, or to remove unwanted items after the cleaning out of a garage or basement. This market segment has remained relatively stable as a share of industry revenue over the past five years. Government and not-for-profit organizations Governments and not-for-profit organizations contract industry services for a variety of purposes. Federal and state governments may hire industry operators to handle hazardous waste removal, clean-up of national and state parks as well as general scheduled waste collection services from government buildings. Not-for-profit organizations hire industry operators to carry out communal waste removal operations not paid for by municipal governments along with other similar services. However, the vast majority of industry revenue earned from sales to this market segment is derived from contracts between municipal governments and industry operators to collect residential, business and other general waste generated with a municipality at regularly scheduled intervals. There has been a long-standing trend for local governments to contract out their collection services to private operators. About a quarter of residential waste collection revenue still accrues to municipal governments who dire ctly undertake waste collection; however, this share will continue to diminish over time as municipal governments continue outsourcing collection services. The market share occupied by government and not-for-profit organizations was relatively high in 2010 as demand from commercial, industrial and construction markets were low in the wake of the recession. However, the share from this market segment has declined over the past five years in line with returning demand from other market segments, and is expected to continue to fall slightly over the five years to 2020. References: Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries.Waste management,33(1), 220-232 Marshall, R. E., Farahbakhsh, K. (2013). Systems approaches to integrated solid waste management in developing countries.Waste Management,33(4), 988-1003 Blengini, G. A., Busto, M., Fantoni, M., Fino, D. (2012). Eco-efficient waste glass recycling: Integrated waste management and green product development through LCA.Waste management,32(5), 1000-1008 Hoornweg, D., Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). What a waste: a global review of solid waste management Arena, U. (2012). Process and technological aspects of municipal solid waste gasification. A review.Waste management,32(4), 625-639 Yuan, H., Shen, L. (2011). Trend of the research on construction and demolition waste management.Waste management,31(4), 670-679 Yuan, H., Chini, A. R., Lu, Y., Shen, L. (2012). A dynamic model for assessing the effects of management strategies on the reduction of construction and demolition waste.Waste management,32(3), 521-531 Blengini, G. A., Fantoni, M., Busto, M., Genon, G., Zanetti, M. C. (2012). Participatory approach, acceptability and transparency of waste management LCAs: case studies of Torino and Cuneo.Waste management,32(9), 1712-1721 Kiddee, P., Naidu, R., Wong, M. H. (2013). Electronic waste management approaches: An overview.Waste Management,33(5), 1237-1250. Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in developing countries.Waste management,33(1), 220-232 Marshall, R. E., Farahbakhsh, K. (2013). Systems approaches to integrated solid waste management in developing countries.Waste Management,33(4), 988-1003 Blengini, G. A., Busto, M., Fantoni, M., Fino, D. (2012). Eco-efficient waste glass recycling: Integrated waste management and green product development through LCA.Waste management,32(5), 1000-1008 Hoornweg, D., Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). What a waste: a global review of solid waste management Arena, U. (2012). Process and technological aspects of municipal solid waste gasification. A review.Waste management,32(4), 625-639 Yuan, H., Shen, L. (2011). Trend of the research on construction and demolition waste management.Waste management,31(4), 670-679 Yuan, H., Chini, A. R., Lu, Y., Shen, L. (2012). A dynamic model for assessing the effects of management strategies on the reduction of construction and demolition waste.Waste management,32(3), 521-531 Blengini, G. A., Fantoni, M., Busto, M., Genon, G., Zanetti, M. C. (2012). Participatory approach, acceptability and transparency of waste management LCAs: case studies of Torino and Cuneo.Waste management,32(9), 1712-1721 Kiddee, P., Naidu, R., Wong, M. H. (2013). Electronic waste management approaches: An overview.Waste Management,33(5), 1237-1250.